The Southbound Underground Railroad—often called the Saltwater Railroad—is a powerful and under-taught chapter of resistance and liberation. It complements the more widely known northbound routes to Canada, but instead carried enslaved Africans toward freedom in Spanish Florida, Mexico, the British-controlled Bahamas, and even Africa. Here’s a full breakdown:
🌊 The Saltwater Railroad: Overview
– Timeframe: Roughly 1687 to 1861
– First recorded escape to Spanish Florida: 1687
– Peak activity: 1821–1861, especially after the U.S. acquired Florida
– Decline: After the Civil War began in 1861, and slavery was abolished in British territories (1834) and later in the U.S. (1865)
– Destinations:
– Spanish Florida (before U.S. acquisition in 1821)
– Mexico, where slavery was abolished in 1829
– Bahamas, under British rule—slavery abolished in 1834
– Africa, especially Liberia, via colonization and repatriation efforts
🗺️ Key Routes & Methods of Escape
| Destination | Route Taken | Transportation Used
| Florida | From Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina | On foot, through swamps and Seminole lands |
| Bahamas | From South Florida beaches to Nassau | Bahamian boats, dugout canoes, handmade rafts|
| Mexico | From Texas and Louisiana | On foot, horseback, wagons, small boats |
| Africa (Liberia)| Via ports in Charleston, Savannah, Norfolk | Ships chartered by American Colonization Society or Black-led missions |
– Cape Florida Lighthouse (Key Biscayne) was a major launch point for boats heading to the Bahamas
– Fort Mosé, near St. Augustine, Florida, was the first legally sanctioned free Black town in North America, established by Spanish authorities in 1738
🧭 Leaders, Allies & Communities
✊ Black Seminoles
– Enslaved Africans who escaped and joined Seminole communities in Florida
– Later forced west during the Trail of Tears, some escaped again to the Bahamas
🧑✈️ Ship Captains & Sailors
– Bahamian and Caribbean mariners often aided fugitives
– Some sympathetic white and Black sailors helped smuggle escapees
📜 Notable Events
– Creole Revolt (1841): Enslaved people aboard the ship Creole overpowered the crew and sailed to Nassau, freeing over 100 people
🏞️ Fort Mosé Militia
– Black volunteers defended Spanish Florida in exchange for freedom
– Led by figures like Francisco Menéndez, a formerly enslaved African who became a militia leader and community builder
🌍 Why These Destinations?
– Spanish Florida: Spain offered asylum and freedom to escaped slaves who converted to Catholicism and served in the militia
– Mexico: Abolished slavery in 1829 and welcomed Black fugitives from Texas and Louisiana
– Bahamas: British decree in 1825 declared anyone arriving on British soil free; abolition in 1834 sealed its role as a haven
– Africa: Liberia became a destination for repatriated and self-liberated Africans, though motivations and outcomes were complex
Risks & Realities
– Ocean crossings were perilous: storms, pirates, slave catchers
– Many escapees traveled at night, in silence, with no maps
– Some paid for passage; others built their own vessels or relied on community networks.
John Horse
John Horse—also known as Juan Caballo, John Cowaya, and Gopher John—was a towering figure in 19th-century resistance movements, diplomacy, and Black and Indigenous liberation. Born around 1812 in Florida, he was of mixed African, Seminole, and Spanish descent. His life spanned multiple nations, wars, and identities, and he became a protector and patriarch of the Black Seminoles, also known as Seminole Maroons.
🛡️ Warrior and Diplomat
– Second Seminole War (1835–1842): John Horse rose to prominence as a leader of the Black Seminoles fighting alongside the Seminole Nation against U.S. forces.
– Negotiator and Guide: After initial resistance, he agreed to relocate west with the Seminoles in 1837, fearing re-enslavement. He later served as a U.S. Army interpreter and guide.
🌍 Transnational Freedom Fighter
– Flight to Mexico (1849): To escape the threat of slavery, Horse led a group of Black Seminoles and disaffected Indigenous allies to northern Mexico. There, they were granted land and became known as the Mascogos.
– Mexican Army Captain: In exchange for military service against Apache and Comanche raiders, Horse was named El Capitán Juan Caballo by Mexican authorities.
🧭 Legacy and Final Years
– Return to the U.S. (1870): He and many Mascogos settled near Fort Duncan, Texas. Though he didn’t serve directly, his people became the famed Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.
– Assassination Attempt and Final Mission: After surviving an attempt on his life by white Texans, he returned to Mexico and died in 1882 while advocating for his people before President Porfirio Díaz.
John Horse’s life is a testament to transborder resistance, cultural survival, and visionary leadership. He defied the boundaries of race, nation, and empire—crafting a legacy that still resonates in Black Seminole communities today.
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