CLASS OVERVIEW

Learn about the Southern Underground Railroad.

BEFORE YOU GET STARTED:

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Sources:

https://youtu.be/7pciH4ptvVQ?si=-cfa58duG6k8LL0k

https://youtube.com/shorts/YDO_HiSK0rY?si=DJB6Rothsv_2vArH

https://youtu.be/coauCXBRUSs?si=ux9MLSlS9pu_VBVQ

The Southbound Underground Railroad—often called the Saltwater Railroad—is a powerful and under-taught chapter of resistance and liberation. It complements the more widely known northbound routes to Canada, but instead carried enslaved Africans toward freedom in Spanish Florida, Mexico, the British-controlled Bahamas, and even Africa. Here’s a full breakdown:

🌊 The Saltwater Railroad: Overview

– Timeframe: Roughly 1687 to 1861

  – First recorded escape to Spanish Florida: 1687

  – Peak activity: 1821–1861, especially after the U.S. acquired Florida

  – Decline: After the Civil War began in 1861, and slavery was abolished in British territories (1834) and later in the U.S. (1865)

– Destinations:

   – Spanish Florida (before U.S. acquisition in 1821)

   – Mexico, where slavery was abolished in 1829

  – Bahamas, under British rule—slavery abolished in 1834

  – Africa, especially Liberia, via colonization and repatriation efforts

🗺️ Key Routes & Methods of Escape

| Destination     | Route Taken                                  | Transportation Used                          

| Florida         | From Georgia, Alabama, South Carolina         | On foot, through swamps and Seminole lands   |

| Bahamas         | From South Florida beaches to Nassau          | Bahamian boats, dugout canoes, handmade rafts|

| Mexico          | From Texas and Louisiana                      | On foot, horseback, wagons, small boats      |

| Africa (Liberia)| Via ports in Charleston, Savannah, Norfolk    | Ships chartered by American Colonization Society or Black-led missions |

– Cape Florida Lighthouse (Key Biscayne) was a major launch point for boats heading to the Bahamas

– Fort Mosé, near St. Augustine, Florida, was the first legally sanctioned free Black town in North America, established by Spanish authorities in 1738

🧭 Leaders, Allies & Communities

✊ Black Seminoles

– Enslaved Africans who escaped and joined Seminole communities in Florida

– Later forced west during the Trail of Tears, some escaped again to the Bahamas

🧑‍✈️ Ship Captains & Sailors

– Bahamian and Caribbean mariners often aided fugitives

– Some sympathetic white and Black sailors helped smuggle escapees

📜 Notable Events

– Creole Revolt (1841): Enslaved people aboard the ship Creole overpowered the crew and sailed to Nassau, freeing over 100 people

🏞️ Fort Mosé Militia

– Black volunteers defended Spanish Florida in exchange for freedom

– Led by figures like Francisco Menéndez, a formerly enslaved African who became a militia leader and community builder

🌍 Why These Destinations?

– Spanish Florida: Spain offered asylum and freedom to escaped slaves who converted to Catholicism and served in the militia

– Mexico: Abolished slavery in 1829 and welcomed Black fugitives from Texas and Louisiana

– Bahamas: British decree in 1825 declared anyone arriving on British soil free; abolition in 1834 sealed its role as a haven

– Africa: Liberia became a destination for repatriated and self-liberated Africans, though motivations and outcomes were complex

Risks & Realities

– Ocean crossings were perilous: storms, pirates, slave catchers

– Many escapees traveled at night, in silence, with no maps

– Some paid for passage; others built their own vessels or relied on community networks.

John Horse

John Horse—also known as Juan Caballo, John Cowaya, and Gopher John—was a towering figure in 19th-century resistance movements, diplomacy, and Black and Indigenous liberation. Born around 1812 in Florida, he was of mixed African, Seminole, and Spanish descent. His life spanned multiple nations, wars, and identities, and he became a protector and patriarch of the Black Seminoles, also known as Seminole Maroons.

🛡️ Warrior and Diplomat

– Second Seminole War (1835–1842): John Horse rose to prominence as a leader of the Black Seminoles fighting alongside the Seminole Nation against U.S. forces.

– Negotiator and Guide: After initial resistance, he agreed to relocate west with the Seminoles in 1837, fearing re-enslavement. He later served as a U.S. Army interpreter and guide.

🌍 Transnational Freedom Fighter

– Flight to Mexico (1849): To escape the threat of slavery, Horse led a group of Black Seminoles and disaffected Indigenous allies to northern Mexico. There, they were granted land and became known as the Mascogos.

– Mexican Army Captain: In exchange for military service against Apache and Comanche raiders, Horse was named El Capitán Juan Caballo by Mexican authorities.

🧭 Legacy and Final Years

– Return to the U.S. (1870): He and many Mascogos settled near Fort Duncan, Texas. Though he didn’t serve directly, his people became the famed Seminole Negro Indian Scouts.

– Assassination Attempt and Final Mission: After surviving an attempt on his life by white Texans, he returned to Mexico and died in 1882 while advocating for his people before President Porfirio Díaz.

John Horse’s life is a testament to transborder resistance, cultural survival, and visionary leadership. He defied the boundaries of race, nation, and empire—crafting a legacy that still resonates in Black Seminole communities today.

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CLASS OVERVIEW

Learn about The MeHarry Hospital; The Flying Medics; The Southbound Underground Railroad and Jeremiah Hamilton the first Black Millionaire  on Wall Street.

BEFORE YOU GET STARTED:

• Please check the materials that go with this lesson and print relevant materials.
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– Southbound Underground Railroad: While most people associate the Underground Railroad with routes heading north, recent scholarship has highlighted a lesser-known path—south to Mexico. Mexico abolished slavery in 1829 and welcomed freedom seekers. It’s estimated that between 3,000 and 10,000 enslaved people escaped to Mexico from southern states like Texas and Alabama.

– Alabama’s Role: Alabama had over 435,000 enslaved people by 1860, nearly half its population. Though there wasn’t an organized Underground Railroad in the state, many enslaved individuals escaped using steamboats, forged papers, or by blending into free Black communities. Some even traveled southward, aided by sympathetic individuals like Nathaniel Jackson, a white settler from Alabama who helped enslaved people cross into Mexico.

So while it wasn’t a single coordinated escape of 10,000 people from Alabama, the broader migration of thousands—including many from Alabama—toward Mexico for freedom is historically supported. It’s a powerful reminder of the resilience and ingenuity of those who resisted bondage.

Meharry Hospital’s origin is deeply rooted in a story of compassion, promise, and purpose. It all began in the 1820s when a young white salt trader named Samuel Meharry found himself stranded in Kentucky. A recently freed Black family took him in, fed him, and helped him get back on the road—despite the risks they faced from slave hunters. Deeply moved, Meharry vowed to one day repay their kindness by doing something meaningful for Black Americans.

Fast forward to 1876, just 11 years after the Civil War ended: Samuel Meharry and his four brothers fulfilled that promise by donating $30,000 in cash and property to establish a medical department at Central Tennessee College in Nashville. This department was the first medical school in the South dedicated to educating African Americans. It later became Meharry Medical College, which remains the largest private, historically Black academic health sciences center in the U.S..

The hospital itself grew out of this mission—to serve the underserved. Meharry’s faith-based roots in the United Methodist Church and its partnership with the Freedman’s Aid Society helped shape its ethos: “Worship of God Through Service to Mankind”.

It’s a legacy built not just on medicine, but on moral obligation, community uplift, and a promise kept across generations.

The Flying Black Medics were a pioneering team of African American healthcare professionals—doctors, nurses, social workers, dieticians, pharmacists, and biochemists—who flew from Chicago to underserved communities to provide free medical care and education during the 1970s. They were founded by Dr. Leonidas H. Berry, a renowned gastroenterologist and civil rights advocate.

🌍 Why They Were Formed

In 1970, Cairo, Illinois was in the midst of racial and economic turmoil. The Black community there had little to no access to healthcare, and segregation had created a medical desert. Dr. Berry, moved by the injustice, organized the Flying Black Medics to bring care directly to the people. They set up clinics in churches like Ward Chapel AME and treated patients who had been long neglected by the healthcare system.

🧠 Dr. Leonidas Berry’s Legacy

Dr. Berry wasn’t just a physician—he was an innovator. He developed the Eder-Berry biopsy attachment, which revolutionized how doctors examined the stomach without surgery. Despite his global reputation, he faced systemic racism, including being denied an attending position at Michael Reese Hospital for 17 years.

Jeremiah Hamilton

Oh, Jeremiah Hamilton is one of those figures who should be shouted from rooftops—but history tried to whisper him away. Let’s turn up the volume 📢.

🕴️ Who Was Jeremiah G. Hamilton?
Jeremiah Hamilton (ca. 1807–1875) was Wall Street’s first Black millionaire, a financial maverick who built a fortune estimated at $2 million in his time—equivalent to $250 million today. He was known as the “Prince of Darkness,” not for anything sinister, but because he operated boldly in a white-dominated financial world and refused to play by anyone’s rules but his own.

💼 Rise to Wealth
– He first made headlines in the 1820s after a counterfeit coin scandal in Haiti, narrowly escaping execution.
– In New York, he capitalized on the 1835 Great Fire, buying up devalued properties and flipping them for profit.
– He ran what we’d now call a hedge fund, leveraging investor money to make aggressive plays in the stock market.
– He even clashed with Cornelius Vanderbilt, one of the most powerful industrialists of the era, over control of the Accessory Transit Company.

🏠 Personal Life & Controversy
– Hamilton married Eliza Jane Morris, a white woman, and had eight children—a bold move in deeply racist 19th-century America.
– He was targeted during the 1863 Draft Riots, when white mobs tried to lynch him. His wife cleverly defused the situation by claiming he wasn’t home.
– Despite his wealth, he was ostracized by both white elites and Black intellectuals, who saw his pursuit of money as undignified.

🕯️ Legacy
Hamilton died of pneumonia in 1875, and though he was the richest Black man in America at the time, his death was barely noted. No known image of him survives, and for decades, he was left out of mainstream history.

Who was the President of the US that William Monroe Trotter had a meeting with twice?

CLASS OVERVIEW

Take a quiz to decide which path you would take in the struggle for Civil Rights and listen to the following discussion. Learn about William Monroe Trotter.

BEFORE YOU GET STARTED:

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William Monroe Trotter was born on **April 7, 1872**, in **Chillicothe, Ohio** “1”). He was the **third child** of **James Monroe Trotter** and **Virginia Isaacs Trotter**, but the first to survive infancy. His father, James, was born into slavery in Mississippi but was later freed and became a **lieutenant in the 55th Regiment of the Massachusetts Volunteer Infantry (Colored)** during the Civil War.

Trotter grew up in **Hyde Park, Massachusetts**, in a well-to-do family that emphasized education and activism. He excelled academically, becoming **valedictorian** of his high school class and later attending **Harvard University**, where he was the **first African American to earn a Phi Beta Kappa key**. His upbringing instilled in him a strong sense of duty to fight racial discrimination, which shaped his later activism.

William Monroe Trotter’s early life was shaped by several key influences:

– **His Parents’ Activism**: His father, **James Monroe Trotter**, was born into slavery but later became a **Union Army officer** and a **Recorder of Deeds** in Washington, D.C. His mother, **Virginia Isaacs Trotter**, was also deeply involved in the fight against racial discrimination. Their commitment to civil rights instilled in Trotter a strong sense of purpose.

– **Education and Excellence**: Trotter attended **Harvard University**, where he became the **first African American to earn a Phi Beta Kappa key**. His academic success reinforced his belief in the power of education as a tool for racial uplift.

– **Exposure to Racial Inequality**: Growing up in **Hyde Park, Massachusetts**, he witnessed both the privileges of his middle-class upbringing and the persistent racial barriers that African Americans faced. This dual perspective fueled his determination to challenge segregation and discrimination.

– **Influence of W.E.B. Du Bois**: Trotter was a contemporary of **W.E.B. Du Bois**, and their shared commitment to civil rights led to the formation of the **Niagara Movement**, a precursor to the NAACP. However, Trotter often took a more radical stance than Du Bois, advocating for direct action against racial injustice.

His upbringing and experiences laid the foundation for his later activism.  

William Monroe Trotter challenged Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist approach because he believed it compromised the fight for full civil rights. Washington advocated for economic progress and vocational training for Black Americans while avoiding direct confrontation with white supremacy. Trotter, however, saw this as accepting second-class citizenship and argued that Black Americans should demand immediate equality rather than settling for gradual change.

Trotter used his newspaper, The Guardian, to criticize Washington’s influence, accusing him of silencing dissent and controlling Black leadership through financial and political connections. He also helped form the Niagara Movement, which later influenced the NAACP, to push for direct action against racial injustice.

His opposition to Washington was bold and uncompromising, making him a key figure in the early civil rights movement. 

Woodrow Wilson agreed to meet with **William Monroe Trotter** because Trotter was a prominent civil rights activist and journalist who had supported Wilson’s presidential campaign in **1912**. Trotter believed Wilson would uphold his promises of fair treatment for Black Americans, but when Wilson’s administration **expanded segregation in federal offices**, Trotter sought a meeting to challenge these policies.

Trotter met with Wilson **twice**, in **1913 and 1914**, as a representative of the **National Independent Political League**. He hoped to persuade Wilson to reverse segregation policies, arguing that Black and white clerks had worked together for decades without issue. 

William Monroe Trotter met with President Woodrow Wilson in 1914 to protest Wilson’s support for segregation of Black federal employees. Trotter, representing the National Independent Political League, confronted Wilson directly at the White House, arguing that segregation was unjust and unnecessary since Black and white clerks had worked together for decades without issue.

During the meeting, Trotter boldly challenged Wilson, questioning his integrity and demanding action. Wilson, offended by Trotter’s direct approach, had him removed from the White House. Despite this, Trotter took his case to the press, publicly criticizing Wilson’s policies and exposing the administration’s role in expanding segregation.

His confrontation with Wilson was a defining moment in early civil rights activism, demonstrating the power of direct action and fearless advocacy In exposing the administration’s role in reinforcing segregation. His bold activism became a model for later civil rights movements.

William Monroe Trotter was a **trailblazing civil rights activist and journalist** who fought tirelessly for racial equality in the early 20th century. Here are some of his major accomplishments:

– **Founded The Guardian (1901)**: He established this influential African American newspaper to challenge racial injustice and oppose Booker T. Washington’s accommodationist policies.

– **Co-founded the Niagara Movement (1905)**: Alongside W.E.B. Du Bois, he helped create this precursor to the NAACP, advocating for full civil rights for Black Americans.

– **Challenged President Woodrow Wilson (1914)**: He confronted Wilson over the introduction of segregation in federal workplaces, making national headlines

– **Protested The Birth of a Nation (1915)**: He led efforts to ban screenings of the racist film, though he was only partially successful.

– **Advocated for Black representation at the Paris Peace Conference (1919)**: Despite opposition from the U.S. government, he attended as a delegate of the National Equal Rights League.

Trotter’s **unwavering activism** made him a key figure in the fight for racial justice, even when his methods were controversial. His legacy continues to inspire civil rights movements today.

William Monroe Trotter passed away on **April 7, 1934**, which was also his **62nd birthday**. His death was the result of a **fall from the roof of his home in Boston**. While the exact circumstances remain uncertain, it is known that he was experiencing **depression and personal struggles** at the time. His legacy as a **civil rights activist and journalist** continues to be recognized today.

If you were in the Civil Rights time,  would you be with the Non-violence of the Civil Rights leadership or with the Deacons of Defense and Justice and the Black Panthers and Why?

CLASS OVERVIEW

Learn about the Deacons of Defense and Justice and how they compared to other groups.

BEFORE YOU GET STARTED:

• Please check the materials that go with this lesson and print relevant materials.
• Also, check out the books and products the teachers use for further learning.
• Reach out to support@urbanintellectuals.com if you have any questions or issues.
• Some links may be affiliate links where we may earn a small commission from purchases.

Sources:

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The **Deacons for Defense and Justice**, an armed African-American self-defense group founded in 1964. They emerged during the civil rights movement to protect activists from violent white supremacist groups like the Ku Klux Klan.

The Deacons were formed in Jonesboro, Louisiana, by **Earnest “Chilly Willy” Thomas** and **Frederick Douglass Kirkpatrick*. They played a crucial role in safeguarding civil rights workers, particularly members of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), who faced relentless threats and attacks. Their presence challenged the myth that the civil rights movement was entirely nonviolent—many activists saw armed self-defense as a necessary response to the dangers they faced.

One of their most notable chapters was in **Bogalusa, Louisiana**, where they actively defended Black citizens and civil rights activists against Klan violence. Their efforts helped push federal authorities to enforce civil rights laws more aggressively.

It’s a fascinating and often overlooked part of history. 

The U.S. government had a complex response to the **Deacons for Defense and Justice**, as their armed self-defense approach challenged the traditional nonviolent civil rights movement.

*Government Response**

– **Federal Intervention** – The Deacons’ presence forced federal authorities to take civil rights violations more seriously. Their actions in **Bogalusa, Louisiana** pressured the government to intervene against Ku Klux Klan violence – **FBI Surveillance** – The **Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)** monitored the Deacons closely, concerned about their armed resistance. However, their focus soon shifted to larger Black Power organizations like the **Black Panther Party **Local Law Enforcement Resistance** – Many local police departments were hostile toward the Deacons, often siding with white supremacist groups. In some cases, police refused to protect Black activists, making the Deacons’ armed presence even more necessary.

– **Civil Rights Movement Tensions** – Traditional civil rights leaders, including **Martin Luther King Jr.**, were cautious about endorsing the Deacons’ tactics. While some activists supported their approach, others feared it would escalate violence. Despite government scrutiny, the Deacons played a crucial role in protecting activists and shifting the civil rights movement’s strategy. Their influence helped pave the way for later self-defense organizations.

The **Deacons for Defense and Justice** and the **Black Panther Party** both embraced armed self-defense, but their strategies and objectives differed significantly.

### **Key Differences**

– **Origins & Focus**:

  – The **Deacons** formed in 1964 in Louisiana to protect civil rights activists from Klan violence.

  – The **Black Panther Party** (BPP) was founded in 1966 in Oakland, California, with a broader mission of community empowerment and resistance against police brutality.

– **Tactics**:

  – The **Deacons** primarily focused on **defensive protection**, ensuring activists could safely protest and register voters.

  – The **BPP** took a more **proactive approach**, openly patrolling Black neighborhoods and confronting police misconduct.

– **Community Programs**:

  – The **Deacons** were mainly a security force.

  – The **BPP** launched **social programs**, including free breakfast for children, medical clinics, and education initiatives.

### **Similarities**

– Both groups **challenged nonviolent resistance**, arguing that self-defense was necessary.

– Both faced **government surveillance and repression**, including FBI investigations.

– Both inspired later movements advocating for Black self-determination.

The **Deacons laid the groundwork** for armed resistance, while the **Black Panther Party expanded the movement** into broader political and social activism. 

The **Deacons for Defense and Justice** were a Black self-defense organization founded in **1964** in **Jonesboro, Louisiana** to protect civil rights activists from violent white supremacist groups like the Klu Klux Klan.

### **Key Members**

Some of the notable figures in the organization included:

– **Earnest “Chilly Willy” Thomas** – Co-founder

– **Frederick Douglas Kirkpatrick** – Co-founder

– **Charles Sims** – Leader of the Bogalusa chapter
– **A.Z. Young** – Key figure in Bogalusa
– **Robert Hicks** – Leader in Bogalusa, Louisiana

### **Impact**

The Deacons played a crucial role in shifting the civil rights movement’s approach to self-defense. Their armed presence:

– **Protected civil rights activists** from Klan violence

– **Forced federal intervention** in areas where local law enforcement failed to protect Black citizens.

– **Helped neutralize Klan intimidation** in Louisiana and beyond

– **Provided security** for major civil rights events, including the **1966 March Against Fear** from Memphis to Jackson, Mississippi

### **Notable Events**

– **Bogalusa Confrontations (1965)** – The Deacons clashed with the Klan, leading to national attention and federal intervention

– **March Against Fear (1966)** – They provided armed protection for activists marching from Memphis to Jackson
– **Jonesboro Defense Efforts (1964-1965)** – They successfully deterred Klan violence in their hometown

Their influence declined by **1968**, as Black political participation increased and the Black Power movement gained momentum. However, their legacy remains a powerful testament to the necessity of self-defense in the fight for civil rights.

Name the person and the strategies they used that you thought was impressive or stacked to your memory.